Hadrian is bearded – powerful in the spirit of the Greek god Hercules. Constantine the Great is clean shaven – a strong military leader. Vespasian is just Vespasian, Septimius Severus styles himself on his favourite god Serapis. (Author photo at the Yorkshire Museum)

At a rough count there were around a hundred Roman emperors in the West and another eighty-odd in the East (aka Byzantine) after the West had shut up shop in AD 476.

Although not an emperor as such, should we count G.Julius Caesar? Suetonius certainly does in his Twelve Caesars. As the old saying goes: if it looks like a duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck… Not that anybody, including Caesar himself, reported that he quacked.

Do we include usurpers, co-emperors, regents? An imperial claimant is considered to be an emperor when his  power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed.  When imperial power was divided for practical purposes from 286 onward, with one exerting control in the western part and the other over the eastern, control over the respective half was sufficient even if a claimant was not recognised in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west such as Magnus Maximus or Eugenius.

Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, were treated as legitimate emperors. Later, especially when emperors in practice ruled from cities other than Rome, e.g. Trier, they still had to demonstrate they retained possession and control of Rome or even later, Constantinople, itself.

Who do we know about?

Augustus, National Museum of Roman Civilisation, Rome (Author photo)

Generally, we think of Augustus as the first de facto emperor, from 27 BC when the Roman Senate granted Octavian the name and title augustus. He himself maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the Senate) and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). He had the terrifically savvy and competent support team of Livia Drusilla, Maecenas and Agrippa to help him achieve his goals. The title of augustus was conferred on his successors who ironically grew ever more monarchical and authoritarian.

So we don’t become completely confused over the four following century, historians have grouped the emperors into convenient groups

Principate (27 BC – AD 284)

The Julio-Claudians

This includes all those we like to think were stinkers – Tiberius, Nero, Caligula – or crafty like Claudius. These names are fairly familiar thanks to various interpretations, good and bad, in films, television and Netflix.

Year of the four Emperors (68–69)

What a year this was! Galba, Otho and Vitellius – an opportunist bunch and not at the forefront of many people’s minds even keen Romanophiles. But where is the fourth?

The Flavians (69–96)

The last vespasienne in Paris, Boulevard Arago

Vespasian was the fourth. He seized power by force of arms and conspiracy, but much to everyone’s relief and last a good ten years. Sons Titus (good if promiscuous) and Domitian (bad, morbid prankster and fly-killer) followed.

Known for the Flavian Amphitheatre (aka Colosseum), filling a depleted treasury and Vespasian introducing urine tax. Old fashioned public pissoirs in France were called vespasiennes.)

Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)

Nerva (who’s heard of him?), Trajan (as in the column) who conquered Dacia, Hadrian (as in the wall) who retreated from Dacia as it was too much bother and constantly travelled round the empire, Antoninus Pius (long reign, but generally under the radar), Marcus Aurelius (well-regarded but often misquoted) who shared power with adoptive brother Lucius Verus for a while.  Then came the awfulness of Commodus (aka Joaquin Phoenix in Gladiator).

Trajan’s column, Rome, Marcus Aurelius equestrian statue, Capitoline Museums, Rome, Hadrian’s feet (Statue as Mars, Capitoline Museums, Rome. (Author photos)

The Year of the Five Emperors 193

Yes, another one of those years of emperors we’ve never heard of – Pertinax and Didius Julianus plus Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, generally regarded as usurpers.

The Severans (193–235)

Septimius Severus (Capitoline Museums, Rome. CC Commons)

The fifth of the five was Septimius Severus from North Africa who got a grip on things for the next seventeen years. Unfortunately, his sons were duds – Caracalla (he of the wonderful baths) and Geta (co-emperor with brother Caracalla, but murdered by him).

Two also-runs in the 218 AD power vacuum – Macrinus and son Diadumenian. (No, I hadn’t heard of the latter either.)

Elagabalus (the less said about him the better less you enjoy being suffocated by rose petals, however unlikely), then his cousin Alexander Severus.

Crisis of the Third Century (235–285)

When it all goes to pot. The only name I knew of this bunch was Maximinus Thrax, a roughie, toughie soldier said to be from Thrace. Gordian I and II – father and son – lasted 22 days, followed jointly by Pupienus and Balbinus who notched up 99 days together. Gordian III, grandson of Gordian I, managed 5 years, until ousted by Philip the Arab who also lasted 5 years to be followed by his son Philip who two years later at age twelve was killed. Poor lad.

Then followed another list of short-reigned emperors – Decius, his son Herennius Etruscus, Trebonianus Gallus, Decius’ younger son Hostilian, Gallus’ son Volusianus, Aemilianus, Silbannacus, Valerian –famously captured by the Persians (Oh, the embarrassment!) – Valerian’s son Gallienus, Gallienus’ son Saloninus, Claudius Gothicus (called that for thoroughly thrashing the Goths), Claudius’s bother Quintillus.

Aurelian (he of the walls around Rome much of which can still be seen today), a talented military commander, reunited the empire and heralded the start of the end of the crisis. He lasted five years, then a few more rag, tag and bobtails came along – Tacitus, Florianus, Probus, Carus, then his sons Carinus and Numerian.

The Aurelian Walls, Rome (Author photo)

Dominate (284–476)

This is the next big phase after the Principate. Nobody is pretending any longer to be one of the people or first citizen. It’s strictly a case of ‘lord and master’ and reinforced absolute power.

The Tetrarchy (284–324)

Divide and rule or ‘We’re all in it together’? Hard man Diocletian, former cavalry commander, stabilised the empire and ended the Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286. Diocletian reigned in the Eastern Empire, and Maximian in the Western. Diocletian delegated further in 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as junior colleagues, each with the title Caesar. Diocletian secured the empire’s borders and purged it of all internal and external threats to his power, then retired, pottering off to his estate to grow cabbages (so they say).

Then followed a series of junior emperors jostling for the top job in the west and east – Constantius Chlorus, Severus II, Maxentius, Licinius, Maximinus II Daza, Valerius Valens and Martinian, most of whom, apart form Licinius who clocked up fifteen years, only lasted a short time.

Constantinian dynasty (306–363)

At last, somebody we know. Constantine, called the Great for some reason, and son of Constantius Chlorus, fought his way up the Tetrachial ladder and ended up top dog. He was recorded as the first Christian emperor as he fostered that religion and brought it into the state apparatus. He also moved the capital eastwards and founded Constantinople. He became the sole ruler of the empire after defeating Maxentius in 312 and Licinius in 324. Eventually, as he was dying, he accepted formal Christian baptism.

Constantine statue remains, Capitoline Museums, Rome (Author photos)

After his death in AD 337, his sons – Constantine II, Constans and Constantius II – instead of being content to rule the parts of the vast empire allocated to each of them fell out and started killing each other. Constantius lasted the longest until 361. Then, heigh ho, back to usurpers – Magnentius (lasted 3 years), Vetriano (9 months) and Nepotianus (27 days).

Gold solidus of Julian

Enter Julian, called ‘the Apostate’ by the Christians and ‘the Philosopher’ by others. Cousin and heir of Constantius II, acclaimed by the Gallic army around February 360, he only reigned for eighteen months although he had been a junior emperor – a Caesar – since 355. Julian was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire’s ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution. Unfortunately, he was mortally wounded during a campaign against Persia.

Jovian, commander of the imperial guard, took over as caretaker emperor and is noted as the last emperor to rule the whole empire during his entire reign – all seven months of it.

Valentinian dynasty (364–392) 

Valentinian (or Valens?), Uffizi gallery, Florence. CC Commons)

Valentinian I was proclaimed by the army and mostly ruled the west while his brother Valens governed the east. Valentinian was a hard nut with a bad temper, but successful soldier. He was the last Roman emperor to cross the Rhine into Germania and campaign successfully. His lasting legacy was the wholesale strengthening of the Rhine and Danube fortifications. Short on patience, he collapsed and died of a stroke while yelling at Germanic envoys. His brother Valens is chiefly known for dying in the disaster of the Battle of Adrianople.

Procopius (not the historian but a cousin of Julian) usurped for 7 months. After him came another nasty piece of work, Gratian, Valentinian I’s son. He was proclaimed western co-emperor 367, at aged 8 and became emperor in his own right after Valentinian’s death. He didn’t last past 24 years old.

Next came Magnus Maximus, technically a usurper. A general, related to Theodosius I, he was proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain and briefly recognised by Theodosius I and Valentinian II. But he was a usurper, and we know what happens to usurpers especially when a gifted soldier like Theodosius in on your case…

Then comes poor Valentinian II. Son of Valentinian I, he was proclaimed co-emperor on 22 November 375, at age 4 and became sole western ruler after the defeat of Magnus Maximus in 388. He had a miserable life, dominated (aka bullied) by regents and co-emperors his entire reign. He probably committed suicide, but others say he was killed by the then regent Arbogastes. In 392, Eugenius, a teacher of rhetoric, was pushed up to the top imperial job in the west by Abogastes, now defying Theodosius I. Both were defeated by Theodosius at the Battle of the Frigidus and executed.

Theodosian dynasty (379–457)

The end is approaching for the Roman Empire. Not that they knew it, of course.Theodosius I, a retired general with a Spanish background had proved himself an efficient soldier and administrator, won two civil wars and was instrumental in establishing the Nicene Creed as the orthodox doctrine for Nicene Christianity. He was proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian and ended up ruling the entire empire after Valentinian II’s death. Another one called ‘the Great’.

Solidus of Theodosius I

His two sons – Arcadius and Honorius – proved incompetent rulers and that’s stretching it. They presided over a period of unrelenting foreign invasions and continuous court intrigues, which heavily weakened the empire. The descendants of Theodosius ruled the Roman world with little comprehension or ability for the next six decades and the east–west division endured until the final dissolution of the Roman Empire in the late 5th century.

Constantine III (no relation to I or II) rose through the military ranks and usurped for 4 years.

Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius, was said to have been pushed around by his sister Pulcheria and then his wife Eudocia, although later historians consider he wasn’t completely dominated by them. His reign in the east was marked by the promulgation of the Theodosian law code and the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople. Not bad accomplishments, all in all.

Priscus Attalus, leading member of the Senate, was proclaimed emperor in the west by (of all people) Alaric after the Sack of Rome in 410 AD. He didn’t last long.

Another tough nut entered the scene of the complicated Theodosian family scene – Constantius III (Also no relation to I or II). He was a prominent general under Honorius helping him defeat numerous usurpers & foreign enemies, and became the husband of Galla Placidia, a daughter of Theodosius I. Apparently, she wasn’t super enthusiastic about this… Honorius made Constantius co-emperor in the west, but from 411, Constantius was the de facto ruler.

Next came Valentinian III. A Roman blue blood as the son of Galla Placidia, grandson of Theodosius I and great grandson of Valentinian I, he was unfortunate enough to be faced with civil wars among powerful generals and the invasions of Late Antiquity’s Migration Period, especially by Attila and his hordes of Huns. The latter were eventually defeated at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.

Galla Placidia

Not strictly an emperor but a power wielder and influencer (in the traditional sense!), Galla Placidia (392/93 – 450), daughter of Theodosius I, was mother, tutor, and advisor to emperor Valentinian III. She was queen consort to Ataulf, king of the Visigoths from 414 until his death in 415, briefly empress consort to Constantius III in 421, and managed the government administration as a regent during the early reign of Valentinian III until her death.

Marcian followed, a soldier and official of obscure origins, proclaimed emperor after marrying Pulcheria, a daughter of Arcadius. He reigned in the east and lead successful campaigns thrashing the Huns. Marcian secured the Eastern Empire politically and financially, set an orthodox religious line that future emperors  would follow, and stabilised the capital city politically. He counted as one of the last ‘good’ emperors.

The last western emperors (455–476)

Falling, falling falling… Petronius Maximus, a general and civil official, murdered Valentinian III and married his widow Licinia Eudoxia – poor woman. Avitus, another general, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths and Gallo-Romans after the death of Petronius Maximus, deposed by the magister militum Ricimer, and subsequently became a bishop. Advitus died shortly after of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to death. Lovely. Not.

Marjorian who came next was remarkable and lasted nearly four years. He reconquered Gaul, Hispania and Dalmatia.

Map by Tataryn, CC BY-SA 3.0

But he was deposed and executed by magister militum and ambitious intriguer Ricimer who next put Libius Severus – another of his puppets –  on the (diminishing) throne for the next three years.

In 467, yet another general (you always need the army behind you to be a Roman emperor) Anthemius, great-grandson of Procopius, a cousin of Julian and husband of Marcia Euphemia, a daughter of Marcian was proclaimed western emperor by the eastern emperor, Leo I. Anthemius strove hard against the threats from the Visigoths and Vandals, hoping to preserve the remaining part of the Western Roman Empire, but his efforts were sabotaged by Ricimer. Anthemius is considered to be the last effective emperor of the West. He was murdered by Ricimer’s nephew, Gundobad, King of the Burgundians after a civil war with Ricimer.

19th-century illustration of Romulus Augustus surrendering his crown in front of Odoacer (Project Gutenberg’s Young Folks’ History of Rome, by Charlotte Mary Yonge (1823-1901). Public domain)

Olybrius, Glycerius, Julius Nepos, puppets and intriguers, followed for short periods until it dwindled down to 12-year-old Romulus Augustulus, formally the last western emperor, kneeling in the dust before the Germanic general Odoacer.

Romulus’s life was spared by Odoacer, and he was allowed to retire to Castellum Lucullanum, a fortress in Campania. Little certain information is known concerning Romulus’s life in exile. He might have played a role in founding a monastery at Castellum Lucullanum in the 480s or 490s, dedicated to Saint Severinus of Noricum. He could even have been alive as late as 507 or 511 when Theodoric the Great, Odoacer’s successor, wrote a letter to a ‘Romulus’ about a pension. Romulus was likely dead before the mid-540s, as accounts of the eastern Roman invasion of Italy at that time do not mention him.

A sad end to the first Augustus’s great imperial project, but stronger, more dynamic forces were rising in Europe at this time paving the way to the medieval period. Whether that was a good thing or bad thing, I leave it to you to decide.

Alison Morton is the author of Roma Nova thrillers –  INCEPTIO, CARINA (novella), PERFIDITAS, SUCCESSIO,  AURELIA, NEXUS (novella), INSURRECTIO  and RETALIO,  and ROMA NOVA EXTRA, a collection of short stories.  Audiobooks are available for four of the series. Double Identity, a contemporary conspiracy, starts a new series of thrillers. JULIA PRIMA,  Roma Nova story set in the late 4th century, starts the Foundation stories. The sequel, EXSILIUM, is now out.

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